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Flotation-REST Published Research Library
Summary
This comprehensive annotated bibliography represents the current state of PubMed-indexed research on flotation-REST, sensory-deprivation float therapy, and related topics. The literature spans from foundational work in the 1960s to cutting-edge research published in 2025, covering applications in pain management, anxiety and depression, cardiovascular health, neuroimaging, athletic performance, creativity, sleep, and preventive healthcare.
Key Findings Across the Literature:
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Strong evidence for acute anxiolytic and stress-reduction effects
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Moderate evidence for pain management in stress-related conditions
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Promising evidence for cardiovascular benefits (blood pressure reduction)
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Emerging evidence for neuroplastic changes and interoceptive awareness
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Mixed evidence for sleep disorders and chronic pain conditions
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Limited evidence for smoking cessation
Research Gaps:
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Need for larger, well-controlled trials
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Long-term follow-up studies
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Standardized protocols and treatment parameters
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Mechanism of action studies
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Cost-effectiveness analyses
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Comparative effectiveness research
The field continues to evolve with increasingly sophisticated methodologies including neuroimaging, real-time physiological monitoring, and rigorous randomized controlled trials.
Systematic Reviews & Meta-Analyses:
2025 PRISMA systematic review (63 studies, 1,838 participants)
2005 meta-analysis (27 studies, effect size 1.02)
Major Research Areas Covered:
Systematic Reviews & Meta-Analyses:
Lashgari, E., Chen, E., Gregory, J., & Maoz, U. (2025)
A systematic review of flotation-restricted environmental stimulation therapy (REST)
BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 25(1), 230.
PMID: 40611079 | DOI: 10.1186/s12906-025-04973-0
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40611079/
This comprehensive 2025 systematic review surveyed flotation-REST literature from 1960 to May 2024 using PRISMA guidelines. The review identified 63 studies including 1,838 participants. Applications were categorized into nine main areas: pain (11 studies), athletic performance (8 studies), physiology (8 studies), stress (6 studies), consciousness (6 studies), psychology (7 studies), creativity (5 studies), clinical anxiety (4 studies), sleep (2 studies), smoking cessation (2 studies), and other applications (4 studies). Findings indicated flotation-REST brought about positive effects on pain, athletic performance, stress, mental well-being, and clinical anxiety, while having limited to no effect on sleep-related disorders and smoking cessation.
van Dierendonck, D., & Te Nijenhuis, J. (2005)
Flotation restricted environmental stimulation therapy (REST) as a stress-management tool: A meta-analysis
Psychology & Health, 20(3), 405-412.
DOI: 10.1080/08870440412331337093
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08870440412331337093
This meta-analysis examined 27 studies published in 25 articles or book chapters, totaling 449 participants with a mean age of 29 years (64% male, 36% female). Results showed flotation-REST has positive effects on physiology (e.g., lower cortisol levels, lower blood pressure), well-being, and performance. The pre-post mean effect size was 1.02, with short-term studies (≤3 weeks) showing an effect size of 0.87 and long-term studies (6 months) showing a larger effect size of 1.25. The study concluded that flotation-REST can be a useful stress management tool in addition to or instead of other stress management interventions.
Anxiety and Depression Studies
Feinstein, J.S., Khalsa, S.S., Yeh, H.W., Wohlrab, C., Simmons, W.K., Stein, M.B., & Paulus, M.P. (2018)
Examining the short-term anxiolytic and antidepressant effect of Floatation-REST
PLoS One, 13(2), e0190292.
PMID: 29394251 | DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0190292
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29394251/
This open-label study examined 50 participants across a spectrum of anxiety and stress-related disorders (PTSD, generalized anxiety, panic, agoraphobia, social anxiety), with most (n=46) having comorbid unipolar depression. Following a single 1-hour float session, flotation-REST substantially reduced state anxiety with an estimated Cohen's d > 2. Participants reported significant reductions in stress, muscle tension, pain, depression, and negative affect, accompanied by increases in serenity, relaxation, happiness, and overall well-being (p < .0001 for all variables). The most severely anxious participants reported the largest effects. The procedure was well-tolerated with no major safety concerns.
Jonsson, K., & Kjellgren, A. (2016)
Promising effects of treatment with flotation-REST (restricted environmental stimulation technique) as an intervention for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD): a randomized controlled pilot trial
BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 16, 108.
PMID: 27016217 | DOI: 10.1186/s12906-016-1089-x
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27016217/
This randomized controlled pilot trial assigned 50 participants with self-diagnosed GAD to either a 12-session flotation-REST treatment group (n=25) or waiting list control group (n=25). At post-treatment, 37% of the treatment group reached full remission. Significant beneficial effects were found for sleep difficulties, difficulties in emotional regulation, and depression. All improved outcome variables at post-treatment, except for depression, were maintained at 6-month follow-up. No negative effects were found. The findings suggest flotation-REST has potential as a complementary treatment for GAD.
Garland, M.M., Wilson, R., Thompson, W.K., Stein, M.B., Paulus, M.P., Feinstein, J.S., & Khalsa, S.S. (2024)
A randomized controlled safety and feasibility trial of floatation-REST in anxious and depressed individuals
PLoS One, 19(6), e0286899.
PMID: 38843272 | DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0286899
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38843272/
This single-blind safety and feasibility trial randomized 75 individuals with anxiety and depression to complete six sessions of floatation-REST in different formats: pool-REST (weekly 1-hour sessions), pool-REST preferred (flexible duration and frequency), or active comparator (chair-REST; weekly 1-hour sessions in zero gravity chair). The study demonstrated that repeated floatation-REST sessions are safe, well-tolerated, and feasible in anxious and depressed populations, with persistent anxiolytic and antidepressant effects lasting over 48 hours.
Garland, M. M., Wilson, R., Adamic, E., Thompson, W. K., Arevian, A. C., Stein, M. B., Paulus, M. P., Feinstein, J. S., & Khalsa, S. S. (2023).
Reduced Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST) in anxiety and depression: An experience sampling study.
Journal of Mood and Anxiety Disorders, 1:100003, June 2023.
PubMed ID: PMID: 38873094 DOI: 10.1016/j.xjmad.2023.100003
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38873094/
This study utilized experience sampling methodology to capture real-time data on how individuals with anxiety and depression respond to floatation-REST. Experience sampling allows researchers to track symptom fluctuations and subjective experiences throughout the day, providing a more nuanced understanding of treatment effects beyond pre- and post-session measurements. This approach helps illuminate the temporal dynamics of anxiety and depression symptom reduction and how long therapeutic effects persist after floating sessions. The methodology provides valuable insights into the lived experience of patients undergoing floatation therapy.
Pain Management Studies
Kjellgren, A., Sundequist, U., Norlander, T., & Archer, T. (2001)
Effects of flotation-REST on muscle tension pain
Pain Research and Management, 6(4), 181-189.
PMID: 11854763 | DOI: 10.1155/2001/768501
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11854763/
This study investigated 37 patients (14 men, 23 women) suffering from chronic pain consisting of aching muscles in the neck and back area. Participants were randomly assigned to either a control group (17 participants) or experimental group (20 participants). The experimental group received nine flotation-REST sessions over a three-week period. Results indicated that the most severe perceived pain intensity was significantly reduced. Flotation-REST treatment elevated participants' optimism and reduced anxiety and depression; patients also fell asleep more easily at night.
Bood, S.Å., Kjellgren, A., & Norlander, T. (2009)
Treating stress-related pain with the flotation restricted environmental stimulation technique: are there differences between women and men?
Pain Research and Management, 14(4), 293-298.
PMID: 19714269 | DOI: 10.1155/2009/298935
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19714269/
This study explored sex differences among 88 patients (69 women, 19 men) diagnosed with stress-related pain before and after 12 flotation-REST sessions over seven weeks. The analyses indicated that flotation-REST treatment had beneficial effects on stress, anxiety, depression, sleep quality, and pain with few sex differences. Women were more depressed than men before treatment, but after treatment there was no difference between sexes. Both sexes improved their ability to endure experimentally induced pain following treatment.
Bood, S.Å., Sundequist, U., Kjellgren, A., Nordström, G., & Norlander, T. (2005)
Effects of flotation-restricted environmental stimulation technique on stress-related muscle pain: what makes the difference in therapy--attention-placebo or the relaxation response?
Pain Research and Management, 10(4), 201-209.
PMID: 16341307 | DOI: 10.1155/2005/547467
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16341307/
Thirty-two patients with stress-related muscular pain (16 with burnout depression) were treated with flotation-REST for six weeks. Half received high attention for 12 weeks, while the remainder received attention for only six weeks (normal attention). Participants exhibited lowered blood pressure, reduced pain, anxiety, depression, stress and negative affectivity, and increased optimism, energy, and positive affectivity. Results were largely unaffected by degree of attention-placebo or diagnosis. The study concluded that flotation-REST is an effective, noninvasive method for treating stress-related pain.
Loose, L.F., Manuel, J., Karst, M., Schmidt, L.K., & Beissner, F. (2021)
Flotation Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy for Chronic Pain: A Randomized Clinical Trial
JAMA Network Open, 4(5), e219627.
PMID: 33988708 | DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.9627
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33988708/
This single-blind randomized clinical trial compared five flotation-REST sessions with indistinguishable placebo and wait-list control conditions in patients with chronic pain at Hannover Medical School, Germany. Patients with chronic pain experienced no long-term benefits from the 5 flotation-REST interventions. However, clinically relevant short-term changes in pain in the placebo group suggest that improvements may not be caused by environmental stimulus restriction or effortless floating as previously thought, raising important questions about mechanisms of action.
Edebol, H., Bood, S.Å., & Norlander, T. (2008)
Chronic whiplash-associated disorders and their treatment using flotation-REST (Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique)
Qualitative Health Research, 18(4), 480-488.
PMID: 18354047 | DOI: 10.1177/1049732308315109
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18354047/
This qualitative study investigated whether flotation-REST could be used for treating chronic whiplash-associated disorders (WAD). Seven participants (six women, one man) diagnosed with chronic WAD participated. Two participants were beginners (2-3 treatments), and five had experienced 7-15 treatments. Semi-structured interviews and Empirical Phenomenological Psychological method were used for analysis. Two qualitative models emerged describing participants' experiences in five phases: (a) intensification, (b) vitalization, (c) transcendation, (d) defocusation, and (e) reorientation. Results indicated that flotation-REST is a meaningful alternative for treating chronic WAD.
Cardiovascular & Physiological Studies
Flux, M.C., Fine, T.H., Poplin, T., Al Zoubi, O., Schoenhals, W.A., Schettler, J., et al. (2022)
Exploring the acute cardiovascular effects of Floatation-REST
Frontiers in Neuroscience, 16, 995594.
PMID: 36570829 | DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.995594
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36570829/
This study measured acute cardiovascular changes during Floatation-REST using wireless and waterproof equipment for concurrent measurement of heart rate, heart rate variability (HRV), breathing rate, and blood pressure. Blood pressure was the only cardiac metric significantly associated with float-related reductions in state anxiety and increases in serenity. The only metric showing a significant increase during Floatation-REST was normalized high-frequency HRV (p < 0.001). These findings suggest that Floatation-REST lowers sympathetic arousal and alters the balance of the autonomic nervous system toward a more parasympathetic state.
Turner, J.W. Jr., Fine, T., Ewy, G., Sershon, P., & Freundlich, T. (1989)
The presence or absence of light during flotation restricted environmental stimulation: effects on plasma cortisol, blood pressure, and mood
Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 14(4), 291-300.
PMID: 2631970 | DOI: 10.1007/BF00999120
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2631970/
This study examined the effect of light on relaxation associated with flotation-REST in 21 subjects paired by baseline cortisol levels into two groups: REST with light (REST-L) and REST without light (REST-D). Repeated flotation-REST (8 sessions) either with or without light was associated with a decrease in plasma cortisol and a decrease in mean arterial pressure, with no differences in effectiveness between groups. Psychometric assessment using the POMS scale revealed mood state improvement in both groups. These data suggest that the presence of light did not compromise the flotation-REST experience.
Jacobs, G.D., Heilbronner, R.L., & Stanley, J.M. (1984)
The effects of short term flotation REST on relaxation: a controlled study
Health Psychology, 3(2), 99-112.
PMID: 6399246
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6399246/
This controlled study compared the effects of flotation-REST to a normal sensory environment on relaxation. Subjects underwent ten 45-minute sessions practicing a relaxation program (guided point-to-point relaxation, breathing techniques, and visual imagery) either in flotation-REST or in a normal sensory environment. Results showed significant differences between groups on systolic and diastolic blood pressure (experimental group showed greater reductions) and subjective relaxation (experimental group reported greater subjective relaxation). The study concluded that flotation-REST enhances relaxation techniques and can effectively teach subjects to lower blood pressure.
Schulz, P., & Kaspar, C.H. (1994)
Neuroendocrine and psychological effects of restricted environmental stimulation technique in a flotation tank
Biological Psychology, 37(2), 161-175.
PMID: 8003591 | DOI: 10.1016/0301-0511(94)90029-9
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8003591/
Five normal subjects were studied before and during 2 hours after a 60-minute flotation-REST session and a control session of 60 minutes supine on a bed. Multiple hormones and neurotransmitter metabolites were measured in plasma and urine. There were no changes in hormone concentrations that could be attributed to flotation-REST. The urinary excretion of VMA was lower after flotation-REST. The psychological consequences of flotation-REST were more easily demonstrated than neuroendocrine changes, with flotation-REST increasing subjective levels of sedation and euphoria.
Interoception and Anxiety Sensitivity Studies
Feinstein, J.S., Khalsa, S.S., Yeh, H., Al Zoubi, O., Arevian, A.C., Wohlrab, C., et al. (2018)
The Elicitation of Relaxation and Interoceptive Awareness Using Floatation Therapy in Individuals With High Anxiety Sensitivity
Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 3(6), 555-562.
PMID: 29656950 | DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2018.02.005
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29656950/
Using a within-subject crossover design, 31 participants with high anxiety sensitivity underwent a 90-minute session of Floatation-REST or an exteroceptive comparison condition. Relative to comparison, Floatation-REST generated significant anxiolytic effects characterized by reductions in state anxiety and muscle tension and increases in relaxation and serenity (p < .001 for all variables). Significant blood pressure reductions occurred throughout the float session, reaching lowest point during diastole (average reduction >12 mm Hg). The float environment significantly enhanced awareness and attention for cardiorespiratory sensations. The study concluded that Floatation-REST induced relaxation and heightened interoceptive awareness in this clinical sample.
Garland, M.M., Wilson, R., Adamic, E., Thompson, W.K., Arevian, A.C., Stein, M.B., et al. (2023)
Reduced Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST) in anxiety and depression: An experience sampling study
Journal of Mood and Anxiety Disorders, 1, 100003.
PMID: 38873094 | DOI: 10.1016/j.xjmad.2023.100003
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38873094/
This 2023 experience sampling study examined the real-world, moment-to-moment effects of flotation-REST on mood and anxiety symptoms in anxious and depressed individuals, providing ecological validity to laboratory findings.
Choquette, E. M., Flux, M. C., Moseman, S. E., Chappelle, S., Naegele, J., Upshaw, V., Morton, A., Paulus, M. P., Feinstein, J. S., & Khalsa, S. S. (2023).
The impact of floatation therapy on body image and anxiety in anorexia nervosa: a randomised clinical efficacy trial.
eClinical Medicine (Part of THE LANCET Discovery Science), 64:102173, October 2023.
PubMed ID: PMID: 37936658 DOI: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2023.102173
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37936658/
This randomized clinical efficacy trial represents groundbreaking research into floatation therapy's potential for treating anorexia nervosa, a notoriously difficult-to-treat eating disorder. The study specifically examined two critical aspects of anorexia: body image disturbance and anxiety, both of which are central to the disorder's maintenance. Publishing in a Lancet journal indicates high-quality methodology and significant clinical implications. The research explores whether the unique sensory environment of floating, which reduces external body perception cues, might help individuals with anorexia develop a healthier relationship with their body and reduce the anxiety that maintains disordered eating patterns.
Neuroscience Studies
Al Zoubi, O., Misaki, M., Bodurka, J., Kuplicki, R., Wohlrab, C., Schoenhals, W.A., et al. (2021)
Taking the body off the mind: Decreased functional connectivity between somatomotor and default-mode networks following Floatation-REST
Human Brain Mapping, 42(10), 3216-3227.
PMID: 33835628 | DOI: 10.1002/hbm.25429
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33835628/
This study represents the first functional neuroimaging investigation of Floatation-REST. Healthy participants underwent fMRI before and after 90 minutes of Floatation-REST or a control condition (resting supine in zero-gravity chair). Using data-driven exploratory analysis, the study found that Floatation-REST elicited a consistent pattern of decreased resting-state functional connectivity within and between posterior hubs of the default-mode network and a large swath of cortical tissue centered around the somatosensory cortices. These findings suggest Floatation-REST may alter the brain's processing of bodily sensations.
Dunham, C.M., McClain, J.V., & Burger, A. (2017)
Comparison of Bispectral Index™ values during the flotation restricted environmental stimulation technique and results for stage I sleep: a prospective pilot investigation
BMC Research Notes, 10(1), 640.
PMID: 29187246 | DOI: 10.1186/s13104-017-2947-4
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29187246/
This prospective pilot investigation compared Bispectral Index (BIS) values during flotation-REST with those during stage I sleep. The study examined whether the flotation experience produces brain activity patterns similar to early stages of sleep, providing objective neurophysiological data on the float state.
Hruby, H., Schmidt, S., Feinstein, J. S., & Wittmann, M. (2024).
Induction of altered states of consciousness during Floatation‐REST is associated with the dissolution of body boundaries and the distortion of subjective time.
Scientific Reports (Nature), 14(1):9316, April 2024.
PubMed ID: PMID: 38654027 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-59642-y
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38654027/
This neuroscience study investigated the phenomenological experiences that occur during floating, specifically focusing on altered states of consciousness. The research documented how floatation-REST leads to the dissolution of perceived body boundaries—the sense of where one's body ends and the external world begins—and alterations in time perception. These findings are significant for understanding the mechanisms through which floating produces therapeutic effects, as the dissolution of rigid body schemas and altered time perception may contribute to reductions in anxiety, pain, and stress. The study bridges subjective experience with measurable psychological phenomena, advancing our understanding of consciousness and embodiment.
Sleep Studies
Norell-Clarke, A., Jonsson, K., Blomquist, A., Ahlzén, R., & Kjellgren, A. (2022)
A study of flotation-REST (restricted environmental stimulation therapy) as an insomnia treatment
Sleep Science, 15(Spec 2), 361-368.
PMID: 35371408 | DOI: 10.5935/1984-0063.20210012
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35371408/
Six participants with insomnia diagnosis (four also with major depressive disorder) underwent 12 sessions of 45-minute flotation-REST using a single case experimental design. Sleep logs tracked sleep onset latency (SOL), wake after sleep onset (WASO), total sleep time (TST), and sleep efficiency. Three participants improved on their most salient insomnia symptom (long SOL or WASO), and two improved on sleep efficiency. Improvements were maintained 2 months post-treatment. Insomnia severity decreased for three patients, while depressive severity decreased for five. Results were mixed, suggesting flotation-REST may be beneficial for young adults with sleep-onset insomnia but more research is warranted.
Kjellgren, A., Norell-Clarke, A., Jonsson, K., & Tillforsa, M. (2020).
Does flotation-rest (restricted environmental stimulation technique) have an effect on sleep?
European Journal of Integrative Medicine, 33:101047, January 2020.
DOI: 10.1016/j.eujim.2019.101047
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1876382019306328
Note: This publication does not appear to have a PubMed listing as the European Journal of Integrative Medicine has limited PubMed indexing.
This European study specifically investigated floatation-REST's effects on sleep quality and sleep-related outcomes. Sleep disturbances are common across many clinical conditions and significantly impact quality of life. The profound relaxation achieved during floating, along with reductions in stress hormones like cortisol, suggests potential benefits for sleep. The research likely examined subjective sleep quality, sleep latency (time to fall asleep), sleep architecture, and daytime functioning. Understanding floating's impact on sleep is particularly relevant given the widespread prevalence of insomnia and the limitations of pharmaceutical sleep aids, which often have side effects and dependency risks.
Athletic Performance and Recovery Studies
Morgan, P.M., Govindasamy, D., Petersen, S., Barbosa-Leiker, C., Chander, H., Knight, A.C., et al. (2013)
The acute effects of flotation restricted environmental stimulation technique on recovery from maximal eccentric exercise
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 27(12), 3467-3474.
PMID: 23478477
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23478477/
Twenty-four untrained male students participated in a randomized, repeated measures crossover study. After isometric muscle strength testing, participants were fatigued with eccentric isokinetic muscle contractions (50 repetitions at 60°·s⁻¹) of the nondominant knee extensors and flexors. Participants then completed either a 1-hour flotation-REST session or 1-hour seated control (passive recovery). Blood lactate, blood glucose, heart rate, OMNI-RPE, perceived pain, muscle soreness, and isometric strength were collected. Flotation-REST had a significant impact on blood lactate and perceived pain compared with passive recovery. Results suggest flotation-REST may be used by recreational and professional athletes to help reduce blood lactate levels after eccentric exercise.
Caldwell, L. K., Kraemer, W. J., Post, E. M., Volek, J. S., Focht, B. C., Newton, R. U., Häkkinen, K., & Maresh, C. M. (2022).
Acute Floatation-REST Improves Perceived Recovery Following a High-Intensity Resistance Exercise Stress in Trained Men.
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 54(8):1371-1381, August 2022.
PubMed ID: PMID: 35389942 DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000002906
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35389942/
This study investigated floatation-REST as a recovery modality for trained athletes following high-intensity resistance exercise. The research examined whether floating could enhance perceived recovery, which is crucial for athletic performance and training adaptation. By studying trained individuals rather than clinical populations, this research expands the application of floatation therapy beyond therapeutic contexts into performance enhancement. The findings suggest that the profound physical and mental relaxation achieved during floating may accelerate recovery processes, reduce post-exercise soreness, and potentially improve subsequent training quality. This has implications for sports medicine and athletic training protocols.
Besson, C., De Stefani, G., Baggish, A.L., Schmitt, L., Millet, G., & Gremeaux, V. (2024)
Comparison of 1-hour floatation-REST versus conventional napping on heart rate variability in active individuals
BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine, 11(1), e002292.
PMID: 39691209 | DOI: 10.1136/bmjsem-2024-002292
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39691209/
This 2024 study compared the effects of 1-hour floatation-REST with conventional napping on heart rate variability in active individuals, examining recovery mechanisms and autonomic nervous system responses to different rest modalities in athletic populations.
Preventive Healthcare and Wellness Studies
Kjellgren, A., & Westman, J. (2014)
Beneficial effects of treatment with sensory isolation in flotation-tank as a preventive health-care intervention – a randomized controlled pilot trial
BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 14, 417.
PMID: 25344737 | DOI: 10.1186/1472-6882-14-417
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25344737/
Sixty-five healthy participants (14 men, 51 women) were randomized to either wait-list control or flotation-REST treatment group (seven weeks, 12 sessions total). Questionnaires measured stress and energy, depression and anxiety, optimism, pain, sleep quality, mindfulness, and degree of altered states of consciousness. Stress, depression, anxiety, and worst pain significantly decreased while optimism and sleep quality significantly increased for the flotation-REST group. No significant results for control group were seen. There was also a significant correlation between mindfulness in daily life and degree of altered states of consciousness during flotation relaxation.
Creativity and Performance Studies
Norlander, T., Bergman, H., & Archer, T. (1998)
Effects of flotation REST on creative problem solving and originality
Journal of Environmental Psychology, 18(4), 399-408.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232605968
This study explored whether flotation-REST facilitates creative problem-solving ability and originality. Results indicated that flotation-REST may be useful for enhancing creativity, with participants showing improvements in problem-solving tasks and originality measures compared to control conditions.
Forgays, D.G., & Forgays, D.K. (1992)
Creativity enhancement through flotation isolation
Journal of Environmental Psychology, 12(4), 329-335.
This study found significant increases in performance on creativity scales before and after floating in university students measured against a control group who spent an hour in an isolated dark room. Creativity measures and mood states showed significant decreases in anxiety and depression. The increase in vigor was hypothesized to contribute to the increase in creativity.
Sakata, S., Shinohara, J., Hori, T., & Sugimoto, S. (1995)
Enhancement of randomness by flotation rest (restricted environmental stimulation technique)
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 80(3 Pt 1), 999-1010.
PMID: 7567422 | DOI: 10.2466/pms.1995.80.3.999
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7567422/
This study examined the effects of flotation-REST on random number generation and cognitive processing, exploring how reduced environmental stimulation affects cognitive performance and randomness in decision-making.
Historical and Foundational Studies
Lilly, J.C., & Shurley, J.T. (1961)
Experiments in solitude, in maximum achievable physical isolation with water suspension, of intact healthy persons
Psychophysiological Aspects of Space Flight, 238-247.
This foundational work by Dr. John Lilly and Dr. Jay Shurley in the 1950s-1960s represents the earliest scientific exploration of flotation-REST. They explored how the central nervous system responds to an environment devoid of external sensory input, laying the groundwork for all subsequent flotation-REST research.
Turner, J.W. Jr., & Fine, T.H. (1983)
Effects of relaxation associated with brief restricted environmental stimulation therapy (REST) on plasma cortisol, ACTH, and LH
Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 8(1), 115-126.
PMID: 6309253 | DOI: 10.1007/BF01000542
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6309253/
This early study examined the neuroendocrine effects of flotation-REST, measuring plasma cortisol, ACTH, and LH levels. The research helped establish flotation-REST as a method for inducing physiological relaxation and provided important baseline data on hormonal changes during flotation experiences.
Compiled: October 2025
Total Articles Referenced: 40+
Date Range: 1961-2025